Dickens in Context: A Speech for the Manchester Athenaeum, 5 October 1843
Emily Wright spent a year conducting a research project on Dickens's relationship to Manchester during her time as a student in English and History at the University of Leeds. She conducted primary research in Manchester archives and uncovered fascinating context about Dickens's speech for the Manchester Athenaeum. The below provides an account of other speakers, the wider event, and the work of the Athenaeum. You can explore a map of Manchester, including Victorian landmarks and where Dickens spoke, here. Read Dickens's speech here.
The speech by Dickens for the Manchester Athenaeum on 5 October 1843 is well documented and well known; however, when it is quoted, it is often removed from its very specific context. Building up a picture of the occasion unveils many content and language choices made by Dickens, as well as the impact they may have had on his audience. This was a pivotal time for both the Athenaeum and Manchester as a town, and by studying this speech and the context surrounding it, this history is brought to the forefront. Dickens’s involvement with the institution, supposedly at the urging of his sister Fanny, who was living in Manchester at the time, also highlights his interest in the town.[1] Overall, by analysing the context within which this speech was made – in terms of the town, the institution, and the evening – one can begin to develop a sense of Dickens’s understanding of persuasive rhetoric and the impact he had on institutions such as the Athenaeum throughout his career.
The Manchester Athenaeum was founded in 1835 ‘for the advancement and diffusion of knowledge’ (as displayed on the frieze of the building), and the building itself – completed in 1837 – housed a newsroom, library, lecture hall and a coffee room.[2] The institution was created with ‘an eye to the education of the town’s future leaders ... to provide, what might reasonably be called, “rational recreations” for the sons of the middle classes’, and Richard Cobden, famous for his determination to repeal the Corn Laws, said that it was a ‘manufactory for working up the raw intelligence of the town’.[3]
Dickens acted as chairman at the first annual bazaar and soirée for the institution. This had been established as a fundraiser after the Athenaeum had developed some financial difficulties in its short lifetime. The bazaar, detailed in an article in The Manchester Courier, and General Advertiser, was dedicated to raising funds through the selling of goods, and ran from Monday 2 October to Thursday 5 October 1843, with seventeen stalls in total, all run by women. According to the Manchester Courier, the stalls ‘were all of a very light and elegant construction’ with colourful draperies, with the boutique of stalls six and seven being surrounded by feathers, Ich Dien (the Prince of Wales’s motto) and the Union Jack and Royal Standard. These stalls sold a wide range of merchandise, from ‘Manchester goods’ at stall two, to Australian plants and African beetles at stall seven. Stall six was full of contributions from Queen Adelaide, highlighting the importance and influence of this event. The Refreshments Stall was number fifteen, with contributions of fruits by the Earl of Stamford, Sir B. Heywood, and others. The Book Stall at number sixteen contained the ‘Athenaeum Souvenir’ which was a little volume of original poems, with a preface outlining the importance of the establishment and what it wanted to achieve.[4]
On Monday, the bazaar attracted six hundred visitors over the five hours it was open, making £349 10s. 1d. in total. Tuesday, despite the ‘unfavourable weather’, brought in two thousand visitors and made the Athenaeum £417 11s. 3d. There was ‘less numerous’ attendance on the Wednesday due to the continued harsh weather, and they made £165 17s. in the morning and £126 17s. 1d. in the evening. The bazaar only opened in the morning on the Thursday due to the soirée that evening, and they made £152 3s. 6d. At the end of the soirée on the Thursday, Mayor James Kershaw announced that the bazaar would remain open for the rest of the week with reduced entrance fees, which meant that more money would have been made. The bazaar helped the institution pay back some of their debts and also spread interest in the club and its membership. Attendees of note to the bazaar included Mr and Mrs Disraeli, Richard Cobden, the Earl of Stamford and Warrington, of Dunham Massey, Cheshire, and the Mayor James Kershaw.[5]
The Thursday evening marked the time of the soirée and was ‘most respectably attended’. There were around 1200 present, with around half of them being ‘ladies whose brilliant smiles and elegant attire have a most animated appearance to the scene’, again suggesting the importance of women to this fundraiser.[6] Dickens sat at the top table with other key speakers of the night on either side of him. On his right was James Heywood, first president of the Athenaeum and Liberal MP for North Lancashire from 1847 to 1857. He campaigned for free libraries, museums and art galleries, university entrance for dissenters and university degrees for women, and was also a member of the Portico Library, also based in Manchester.[7] Benjamin Disraeli, the future Prime Minister, was also on Dickens’s right, who during his time in office, would work to improve the educational opportunities for working class people.[8] Reverend J. E. Giles of Leeds was also in attendance, who knew Dickens at school, and on 22 May 1836, he had been ordained as pastor of South Parade, Leeds.[9] The last on Dickens’s right was Dr Lyon Playfair, Honorary Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution, Manchester. He would be heavily involved in the Great Exhibition in 1851.[10]
On Dickens’s left, there was James Crossley, who set up the Chetham society in 1843, with the purpose to edit and publish historical works relating to Lancashire and Cheshire. Crossley was said to have collected 100,000 books at his home in Chorlton upon Medlock.[11] Richard Cobden was also in attendance, famous for his fight to repeal the Corn Laws and defence of free trade.[12] Rounding off the top table was John Roby of Rochdale, an English banker, poet, and writer.[13] Other influential people in attendance included the Mayor, James Kershaw, who was a Liberal MP and cotton mill owner.[14] Salford’s first MP, Joseph Brotherton, also appeared. He was a reforming politician and described as the first vegetarian member of parliament, and was a member of the Little Circle alongside John Potter. He was related to Edward Brotherton, key patron of the University of Leeds.[15] Providing the music for the evening was the band of the 8th Regiment, who were in attendance thanks to the permission of Lieutenant Colonel St. Lo Malet.[16] It is clear to see from this list of attendees that the Athenaeum had chosen them carefully, as they were politicians, writers, or religious figures, which encapsulated the key attributes and goals of the institution. Equally, it must be noted that Dickens was clearly not speaking in a vacuum but making his speech amongst some of the leading figures in their field. This epitomises the importance of context for understanding this speech and how Dickens must have created it with his audience at the forefront of his mind.
Dickens appeared a few minutes after eight and made his first speech. This address uncovers a lot about what mattered to him, as well as what Manchester was like during this time, and what the institution stood for. Nonetheless, it is also important to appreciate the fact that Dickens was speaking as a moneymaker, as the Athenaeum needed donations, meaning the author had to make the institution sound like it was worth investing in. Therefore, this is a persuasive speech and must be viewed within this context in order to appreciate and understand it fully. It is also important to note again that Dickens spoke both before and after the other speakers of the evening, allowing him to adapt and respond to those around him, making the context of the speech discussed above even more important to its analysis. This speech is also of particular interest as Dickens was visiting as a ‘stranger’, or outsider, because he was not Mancunian, and it is interesting to see how he talks about Manchester and what he understood about the town, as well as how he used his position for rhetorical gain. The speech is typified by its constant references to moral, social, and religious improvement, ideals that align closely with those of the Athenaeum, showcasing Dickens’s understanding of the institution. These themes are spoken of throughout the speech to develop Dickens’s argument and persuasive power. Equally, this speech exhibits Dickens’s rhetorical talent and ability to persuade through an understanding of political speechmaking. Overall, the speech develops a strong argument for the benefits of the Manchester Athenaeum, not just for the people who attend it, but for society as a whole.
The speechmaker displays his understanding of the Athenaeum’s history in conjunction with the town, explaining that while it was founded in a time when ‘commerce was in a vigorous and flourishing condition’, it soon faced ‘a season of depression almost without parallel’ which resulted in many of its members withdrawing. The institution was thus faced with £3000 debt, which led to the organisation of the soirée.[17] Further issues are detailed in the Minute Books of the Athenaeum, held by Manchester Libraries, marked most particularly in a line from 25 January 1843, in which they claim (in a roundabout way) that they ‘do not feel justified in saying that the previous state of the institution is one which can be regarded as satisfactory’.[18] Equally, there is an excerpt in an article from 1838 in the Manchester Courier and Lancashire General Advertiser, who wrote that they were met with a ‘scene of disorder and confusion’ when invited to the annual meeting of members.[19] Thus, it is clear to see that the Athenaeum was undoubtedly having difficulties by the time of Dickens’s speech, and desperately needed to make money and improvements in order to survive. Therefore, to contrast the Athenaeum’s troubled history, and establish it as a worthwhile investment for his audience, Dickens uses a lot of positive language when describing the future of the institution. He uses lines such as ‘by the great zeal and energy of all concerned ... that debt is now in rapid course of being discharged’, meaning that ‘the Athenaeum may be said to belong to you and your heirs forever’. The language of longevity paired with language of ownership here establishes the Athenaeum as a long-term investment that will not only improve the lives of those in the room listening to him, but also those in the future. Therefore, by acknowledging his audience and the history of their town, Dickens successfully puts forward a reason for investing in and donating to the Athenaeum.
Throughout the speech, Dickens uses the language of capitalism and commerce to relate to an audience who have lived and worked in a town which centred itself on its industry. It is clear that the author appreciates this aspect of Manchester’s identity, establishing it as an ‘enterprising town’, a ‘little world of labour’, and a ‘great hive’. The symbol of the Manchester Bee had been established the year before by the council, and Dickens’s inclusion of this reference possibly suggests that he was aware of this symbol of identity for Mancunians.[20]
These compliments further the idea that Dickens was there to persuade, and thus to an extent flatter the audience, of which the majority would have been Mancunian. In conjunction with the positive, future-focused language to describe the Athenaeum, Dickens’s flattery of the town itself would have brought the audience on to his side and possibly would have led to them agreeing with his argument more, showcasing Dickens’s expert use of language and rhetoric.
Dickens develops the theme of industry to introduce his main arguments, as because of the Athenaeum, ‘the mind is not forgotten in the din and uproar, but is lodged and tended in a palace of its own.’ The rhetorical combining of Manchester’s identity with social, moral, and religious improvement is something that Dickens does continuously throughout this speech. The idea of moral and social improvement was a key principle of the Athenaeum, as an institute for education, and it is clear that Dickens understood this, thus focusing his speech on those values. Throughout the talk, he argues for the value of the Athenaeum in its role as an institution that aids with moral and religious improvement within the town, as well as its educational impact and impact on literature. His speech is bookended by these themes, suggesting that they are his core argument, and the main thing that his audience are meant to take away with them.
Dickens stresses the importance of the working classes who ‘assist in the production of our wealth’ and thus deserve a ‘temple’ that is ‘sacred’ to their ‘education and improvement.’ This reiterates the key theme of social improvement at the forefront of the speech. The use of ‘temple’ and ‘sacred’ highlights the importance of this institution and the role it played in the town, as it was equal to a church or other sacred location. Dickens also uses words such as ‘palace’ alongside this image to further reiterate the importance of institutions such as the Manchester Athenaeum, and the wealth, whether that be monetary or moral, that they bring to the town. In order to accentuate the uses and value of the Athenaeum, the speechmaker presents a ‘sales pitch’ by listing the amenities available to its members,
with its cheerful rooms, its pleasant and instructive lectures, its improving library of six thousand volumes; its opportunities in discussion and debate, of healthy bodily exercise, and though last not least … its opportunities of blameless rational enjoyment.
Dickens points out both the physical offerings of the institutions such as its ‘cheerful rooms’ and its ‘lectures’ but also highlights its role in mental improvement and ‘debate’, thus furthering the key theme that is strung throughout the speech. He also mentions ‘rational enjoyment’, which was a large part of Victorian leisure and entertainment, again underlining the benefits of the Athenaeum. The author suggests that these opportunities were ‘open to every youth and man’, highlighting the accessibility that the institution prided itself on.
Dickens also develops the value of self-improvement for society as a whole, and the role that the Athenaeum could play in it. He says that any man who ‘improves his leisure in such a place’ will become a ‘better, gentler, kinder man’ and that the benefits of his improvement will ‘extend themselves to his home, and to those whom it contains’. When considering what Manchester was like during this period, this statement would have been very impactful. Manchester in 1844: its present condition and future prospects by Leon Faucher provides useful context as to why society wide improvement would be something that appealed to the audience at the soirée.[21] Faucher exclaims that ‘there is no order in the family and education is a thing unheard of in the town’, which suggests that an institution such as the Athenaeum would have been hugely beneficial for the inhabitants.[22] Overworking was another difficulty that the town faced, likely as a result of its industrial and capitalistic identity. According to Faucher there were factories open seventeen hours a day in Manchester, with fifteen and a half of those hours dedicated to labour.[23] However, unemployment also plagued the area, and the late 1830s and early 1840s appear to have been particularly difficult for the town. 116 mills and factories ceased operations in 1842, alongside 681 shops and offices, and 5492 houses were left unoccupied, with between a third and a half of the working classes out of employment, and another third only partially occupied.[24] This destitution resulted in rioting in 1842, when a thousand armed men suspended labour until their grievances were heard.[25] While tensions had decreased to an extent and the level of destitution was not as desperate by 1843, it could be said that Dickens was addressing an audience weary of the problems facing their town, and thus he presents the Athenaeum as a venue for society wide change and improvement. The translator of the work cites the Athenaeum as a venue for positive change in his footnotes, and that it ‘deserves a special mention for the enterprise and spirit with which it has enlisted the sympathies of the literary world in all parts of the kingdom with its own success and with that of similar literary institutions elsewhere’.[26] It is also important to note that while Faucher does mention many positive things about Manchester, the town was nonetheless struggling when Dickens arrived, and the Athenaeum is thus presented as the saviour of its inhabitants.
The speech also presents the Athenaeum as a venue for the improvement of education and suggests that it could have a positive impact on the literature of the country. Dickens uses part of his argument to push back against traditional ideas of education and the educated and highlights the Athenaeum as a force for good against these stereotypes. Dickens thus develops a focus on the quote ‘a little learning is a dangerous thing’ from An Essay on Criticism (1709) by Alexander Pope, which argues for an in-depth study of the arts.[27] Dickens argues that the poem has been taken out of context and used by the authorities to thwart the improvement of education in the country, ‘because a little hanging was dangerous we had a great deal of it; and because a little learning was dangerous, we were to have none at all’. The author uses Pope’s phrasing to argue against an ignorant society and highlight the Athenaeum’s role in creating such a one. From the coverage of the speech in The Manchester Courier, there are multiple instances of ‘[hear, hear]’, ‘[laughter]’, and ‘[great applause]’, which suggests that the audience present agreed with Dickens’s reasoning.[28]
One of the self-made men that Dickens singles out is Shakespeare, quoting: ‘the primrose path to the everlasting bonfire’. While firmly part of the literary canon at this point, Shakespeare can be considered a self-made, non-traditionally educated man, and Dickens uses this literary reference carefully to perpetuate his point and accentuate the ignorance of these classes of men.[29] The use of literary references by Dickens also suggests the audience present at his speech, as one would have to be relatively well educated to understand them and how they added to the speaker’s argument, which is particularly interesting considering the issues that Dickens is addressing here. Again, this suggests a level of contextual understanding from Dickens as he appreciated the class of his audience and thus presents an argument that would possibly make them more likely to donate to the Athenaeum. The speaker continues the theme of self-made men as he lists famous men who were self-taught throughout history, furthering his argument in the value of self-improvement. He brings this list right up to the present day, as ‘high above the noise of loom and hammer, it whispers courage, even at this day, in ears that I could name in Sheffield and Manchester’.
Dickens furthers this argument through a discussion of the proverb ‘when house and lands are gone and spent, then learning is most excellent’, adapting it to say that ‘though house and lands be never got, learning can give what they can not’. This highlights the benefits of education and learning on those who might not have much else and aligns self-improvement with other necessities such as housing. This section dedicated to learning and improvement is located in the centre of Dickens’s speech, suggesting it is the principal argument that the author wanted to make in his address to the audience at the soirée.
As one of the most prestigious authors of the time, Dickens makes time in his speech to defend the impact that the Athenaeum could have on literature, as:
the more intelligent and reflective society in the mass becomes, and the more readers there are, the more distinctly writers of all kinds will be able to throw themselves upon the truthful feeling of the people, and the more honoured and the more useful literature must be.
Here he is arguing that literature written for these improved people of the Athenaeum would lead to better literature as a whole, while also developing a discussion about the purposes and audiences of literature, and how it can be used for moral improvement, similar to the Athenaeum.
Throughout the speech, Dickens’s rhetorical aptitude is shown. His use of language to indicate tone, such as ‘jagged flints and stones, laid down by brutal ignorance, and held together like the solid rocks by years of this most wicked axiom’, is masterful and again develops his argument. However, it is important to appreciate that this negative tone is never necessarily directed at the Athenaeum or those present at the soirée that evening. Instead, the tone accentuates the importance of the Athenaeum as a place that pushes back against those ‘classes of men’ that he is arguing against, and also urges the audience to not become like those men by donating to the institution.
Dickens concludes his first speech by again repeating the core theme and message, namely ‘the effect of such institutions as these upon the great social system, and the peace and happiness of mankind’. He is careful, as he is throughout the speech as a whole, to firmly prove the value of the institution in wider society and how it could be instrumental in widespread social reform, again making it appear a worthy investment.
After the conclusion of Dickens’s main speech, a series of speeches by the other key attendees took place. A brief study of these is integral to developing a wholistic contextual understanding of the choices Dickens made in his own speeches. The following speeches also help to develop certain themes for the night, as they mention aspects of Dickens’s speech again, helping to consolidate his main arguments and ensure that every audience member understood them fully.
Cobden was the first to speak, and began by mentioning he was one of the founders of the Athenaeum. He continued by saying that the institution had 1325 members at that time, which was the highest levels of membership they had achieved. He ends by thanking Dickens for attending as chairman and extends his thanks to the ladies who had worked the bazaar. Then Mr. Thomas Milner Gibson, M. P. spoke. He expresses his desire for the institution’s success and that he could ‘conceive no institution that deserves more hearty and zealous support from every man who professes to wish the welfare of his species’. He then moves on to praising Dickens’s writing as ‘they will leave the world better and wiser than they found it’, which mirrors Dickens’s own argument on the value of literature in his own speech. He concludes by arguing that the Athenaeum will be an influential force for the improvement of education, again reflecting the sentiments introduced by Dickens, showing just as how Dickens was influenced by those around him, so were other speakers by Dickens. Mr Playfair was then invited to speak in front of the crowd. He kept his speech quite short, also placing a lot of importance on education and knowledge in an industrious town such as Manchester, as ‘industry, unaided by intellect could not keep pace with industry and application, guided by intelligence and art’. Disraeli spoke next. He started by highlighting the ‘miracles of the machinery of Manchester’ and its industrial identity – much like Dickens – and then extends a hearty thanks to the ladies of the bazaar. Manchester is cited as ‘a town which is assuredly one of the great characteristics of modern civilisation’ by the politician, mirroring Dickens’s own compliments. He then says that he believes ‘that you will look back, you and your posterity, to this institution, as to the grain of a mustard seed that has swollen into a fair and goodly tree’, before ending the speech by thanking the ladies again.[30] Disraeli remained an influential figure for the Athenaeum, acting as chairman for the soirée the following year, suggesting again that a note of longevity was being developed at this opening event.[31] Mr J. Roby followed, who gave an anecdote about his apparent inability to give speeches. He also says that Dickens as chairman adds ‘high honour’ to Manchester, and also offers to give a lecture at the Athenaeum. This marked the end of the first portion of the speeches, and the guests were served dessert during a half an hour break. The Courier states that Dickens spent thirty minutes writing autographs for a sovereign each, highlighting the importance of celebrity for this event, as well as his role in raising funds for the Athenaeum.[32]
After this short break, the speeches began again with Reverend J. E. Giles. He opens his speech much like those before him, by praising Dickens and expressing gratitude for his attendance. Giles also mentions that they knew each other before as children and that they had ran through Kentish fields together as youths. The Reverend then highlights the importance of knowledge, and that ‘it might be said that knowledge was not identified with happiness, but was not knowledge light, and was it not a pleasant thing to hold the sun?’ As a religious figure, he also mentions that ‘religion had nothing to fear from enlightenment and knowledge’, again underlining the importance of education and institutions such as the Athenaeum. Mr Heywood then began to close the evening by thanking Dickens for his attendance. He also praises the author for publishing his works ‘in a form which had brought them within reach of classes who could never otherwise have possessed them and spread them wherever the English language was known’. This statement highlights the relevance of Dickens as chairman, as his publishing decisions closely resembled the Athenaeum’s desire to expand access to education and moral improvement. The last to speak before the closing statement from the chairman was the mayor, James Kershaw. He also thanks Dickens for his attendance and that the ‘town was highly indebted to him’ and that he felt as though ‘a new era was about to dawn upon the Athenaeum, which closed the event with a sense of hope and belief in the future of the institution.[33]
All these speeches were made in the context of each other, and throughout the evening every speaker was referring to others in attendance and what they had said, evidenced by the speeches mirroring many of Dickens’s own arguments. Therefore, it is important to treat Dickens in the same way, as someone who was involved in this social event, and who was speaking for a purpose, to raise money for the institution for which he was acting as chairman for the evening. When the author rises again after these speeches, he refers to ‘Mr Roby … in conjunction with Mr Disraeli’ after they had both spoken about giving lectures and being further involved with the Athenaeum.[34] Therefore, it is clear that Dickens adapted his closing words to refer to, and in this case find humour in, what his fellow speakers had been saying. Dickens’s final words encapsulate his role at this soirée as he says that he has ‘been instructed’ to remind his audience that the bazaar still contained ‘a most excellent stock of goods’ which could be bought at ‘the most reasonable prices’ as was ‘consistent with the interests of the establishment’.[35] The author’s role ultimately was to help make money for the Athenaeum, and he summarises this role in his final words for the evening.
On 13 October 1843, eight days after the event, the Manchester Athenaeum committee discussed the bazaar and soirée. The money made from the event in total amounted to around £2000 and it cost approximately £320 for them to host, meaning they could put around £1700 towards paying their debts. The committee expressed their gratitude to Dickens for his attendance and pledged to give him an honorary life membership to the Athenaeum.[36] It can therefore be said that Dickens’s speech was seen as a great success and that it helped the institution recover from their struggles, at least for a while. The Athenaeum closed between 1938 and 1940, and it could be suggested that financial issues were at the forefront based on the institution’s history. Equally, the changing and difficult social, political and economic climate of Britain in these years could be put forward as reasonable factors in the institution’s closure. The building itself became Grade II listed in 1974, and the spirit of the Athenaeum, and Dickens’s involvement in its story, lives on as a cultural centre in Manchester as a wing of the Manchester Art Gallery.[37]
Endnotes
[1] W.J. Carlton, ‘Fanny Dickens, Pianist and Vocalist’, The Dickensian 53 (1957), pp. 133 – 143 (p. 141).
[2] Stephen Collins, James Crossley: A Manchester Man of Letters (Chetham Society, 2012), p. 112.
[3] Paul Pickering, Alex Tyrell, The People’s Bread : A History of the Anti-Corn Law League (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2000), p. 226; Collins, James Crossley (2012), p. 112.
[4] ‘Athenaeum Bazaar and Soirée’, Manchester Courier and Lancashire General Advertiser, 7 October 1843, p. 3.
[5] ‘Athenaeum Bazaar and Soirée’, Manchester Courier and Lancashire General Advertiser, 7 October 1843, p. 3.
[6] ‘Athenaeum Bazaar and Soirée’, Manchester Courier and Lancashire General Advertiser, 7 October 1843, p. 3.
[7] Alan White, ‘Class, culture and control: the Sheffield Athenaeum movement and the middle class 1847 – 64’, The Culture of capital: art, power and the nineteenth-century middle class, ed. Janet Wolff and John Seed, (Manchester University Press), pp. 83 – 115 (p. 88).
[8] ‘Benjamin Disraeli, the Earl of Beaconsfield’, GOV.UK, https://www.gov.uk/government/history/past-prime-ministers/benjamin-disraeli-the-earl-of-beaconsfield#:~:text=Biography,the%20life%20of%20working%20people. [Accessed 9 November 2025]
[9] Chris Pigott, ‘Reverend John Eustace GILES, Baptist Minister’, The Pigott Family of Queen’s County, Ireland; Some Ancestral Connections, https://pigott-gorrie.blogspot.com/2008/07/reverend-john-eustace-giles-baptist.html [Accessed 10 November 2025]
[10] Ian Blatchford, ‘Lyon Playfair: chemist and commissioner, 1818 – 1858’, Science Museum Group Journal, https://dx.doi.org/10.15180/211504
[11] ‘James Crossley’, Chetham’s Library, https://library.chethams.com/collections/101-treasures-of-chethams/james-crossley/ [Accessed 12 January 2026].
[12] John Morely, The Life of Richard Cobden (London: Chapman and Hall, 1883).
[13] John Roby, The Legendary and Poetical Remains of John Roby, ed. Elizabeth Ryland Dent Trestrall, (Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1854), https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/37930/pg37930-images.html#Page_1
[14] ‘James Kershaw’, History of Parliament Online, https://membersafter1832.historyofparliamentonline.org/members/4588 [Accessed 13 January 2026].
[15] Dr Kathryn Rix, ‘’I shall persist’: Joseph Brotherton (1783 – 1857) and late hours in the commons’, History of Parliament, https://historyofparliament.com/2025/05/22/joseph-brotherton/ [Accessed 15 November 2025].
[16] ‘Athenaeum Bazaar and Soirée’, Manchester Courier and Lancashire General Advertiser, 7 October 1843, p. 3.
[17] Charles Dickens, ‘First Annual Soirée of the Athenaeum: Manchester’, The Speeches of Charles Dickens’, ed. By K. J. Fielding, (Clarendon Press, 1960), p. 46.
[18] ‘Board of Directors’ Minutes 29 Jan 1840 – 11 May 1843’ p. 313, M2/1/2, Manchester Libraries, Information and Archives https://www.gmlives.org.uk/results.html#imu[rid=ecatalogue.245751
[19] ‘A Scene at the Athenaeum’, Manchester Courier and Lancashire General Advertiser, 8 February 1838, p. 3.
[20] Visit Manchester, ‘The story behind the Manchester bee – and why it’s used everywhere in the city’, Visit Manchester, https://www.visitmanchester.com/ideas-and-inspiration/blog/post/the-story-behind-the-manchester-bee-and-why-it-s-used-everywhere-in-the-city/ [Accessed 11 November 2025].
[21] M. Leon Faucher, Manchester in 1844; its present condition and future prospects, trans. by a member of the Manchester Athenaeum, (1844).
[22] Faucher, Manchester in 1844; its present condition and future prospects, p. 75.
[23] Faucher, Manchester in 1844; its present condition and future prospects, p. 75.
[24] Faucher, Manchester in 1844; its present condition and future prospects, p. 146, 148.
[25] Faucher, Manchester in 1844; its present condition and future prospects, p. 150.
[26] Faucher, Manchester in 1844; its present condition and future prospects, p. 22.
[27] Dickens, ‘First Annual Soirée of the Athenaeum: Manchester’, p. 47; Alexander Pope, ‘An Essay on Criticism’, Poetry Foundation, https://www.poetryfoundation.org/articles/69379/an-essay-on-criticism [Accessed 13 November 2025].
[28] Dickens, ‘First Annual Soirée of the Athenaeum: Manchester’, p. 47.
[29] Peter Ackroyd, Shakespeare: The Biography, (Vintage, 2006).
[30] ‘Athenaeum Bazaar and Soirée’, Manchester Courier and Lancashire General Advertiser, 7 October 1843, p. 3.
[31] ‘Address of Mr Disraeli, M. P., October 3, 1844), Athenaeum Addresses 1843 – 8 and Report of The Soirée of 1875, (Manchester Athenaeum, 1875), https://archive.org/details/athenaeumaddress00mancuoft [Accessed 11 November 2025].
[32] ‘Athenaeum Bazaar and Soirée’, Manchester Courier and Lancashire General Advertiser, 7 October 1843, p. 3.
[33] ‘Athenaeum Bazaar and Soirée’, Manchester Courier and Lancashire General Advertiser, 7 October 1843, p. 3.
[34] Dickens, ‘First Annual Soirée of the Athenaeum: Manchester’, p. 51.
[35] Dickens, ‘First Annual Soirée of the Athenaeum: Manchester’, p. 51.
[36] Board of Directors’ Minutes 25 May 1843 – 13 Jan 1847 p. 57, M2/1/3, Manchester Libraries, Information and Archives, https://www.gmlives.org.uk/results.html#imu[rid=ecatalogue.245751
[37] ‘The Athenaeum’, Historic England, https://historicengland.org.uk/listing/the-list/list-entry/1270889?section=official-list-entry [Accessed 15 November 2025].